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Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors in Children

Treating Specific Types of Childhood Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors

The treatment options for brain and spinal cord tumors in children depend on many factors, including:

  • The type of tumor
  • The location of the tumor
  • How far the tumor has grown or spread
  • The child's age and overall health

Non-infiltrating (grade I) astrocytomas (pilocytic astrocytomas and subependymal giant cell astrocytomas)

Many doctors consider these to be benign tumors because they tend to grow very slowly and do not grow into (infiltrate) nearby tissues. Pilocytic astrocytomas occur most often in the cerebellum in young children, while subependymal giant cell astrocytomas (SEGAs) grow in the ventricles and are almost always seen in children with tuberous sclerosis.

Most children with these astrocytomas can be cured by surgery alone. They may be given radiation therapy if the tumor is not removed completely, although many doctors will wait until there are signs the tumor is growing back before considering it. Even then, another operation to remove the remaining tumor may be the first option. The outlook is not as good if the tumor is in a place that does not allow it to be removed surgically, such as the hypothalamus or brain stem. In these cases, radiation therapy is usually the best option.

For SEGAs that can’t be removed completely by surgery, treatment with the targeted drug everolimus (Afinitor) might shrink the tumor or slow its growth for some time.

Other targeted drugs might also be an option for some of these tumors.*

Diffuse astrocytomas (grade II)

These tumors tend to grow slowly, but they can grow into nearby tissues. The initial treatment for these tumors is surgery if it can be done, or biopsy to confirm the diagnosis if surgery is not feasible. Because these tumors often grow into nearby normal brain tissue, they are hard to cure with just surgery. Usually the surgeon will try to remove as much of the tumor as safely possible. If the surgeon can remove it all, the child may be cured with no further treatment.

Radiation therapy may be given after surgery, especially if a lot of tumor remains. Otherwise, radiation may be postponed until the tumor starts to regrow. (Sometimes, a second surgery might be tried before giving radiation.) Radiation may also be used as the main treatment if surgery is not a good option because of the tumor’s location.

For children younger than 3, if the tumor can’t be removed completely or if it grows back, chemotherapy may be used to try to slow the tumor’s growth until they are older. They may then be treated with radiation.

Targeted drugs might also be an option for some of these tumors.*

Higher-grade (grade III or IV) astrocytomas (anaplastic astrocytomas and glioblastomas)

Surgery is often the first treatment for these fast-growing astrocytomas if it can be done, but patients with these tumors are almost never cured by surgery. In some cases only a needle biopsy is safe. When surgery is used, as much of the tumor is removed as possible, and then radiation therapy is given, often followed by chemotherapy.

If surgery can’t be done, radiation is the main treatment, again often followed by chemotherapy.

If the child is younger than 3, radiation may be postponed until they are older. Surgery may be repeated in some cases if the tumor comes back after the initial treatment.

Because these tumors are hard to cure with current treatments, clinical trials of promising new treatments may be a good option.

Oligodendrogliomas

If possible, surgery is the first option for oligodendrogliomas. Although surgery does not usually cure these infiltrating tumors, it can relieve symptoms and prolong survival. Many of these tumors grow slowly, and surgery may be repeated if it grows back in the same spot. Radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy may be given after surgery.

If surgery is not an option, chemotherapy, with or without radiation therapy, may be helpful. Oligodendrogliomas may respond to chemotherapy better than other brain tumors if the tumor cells have certain chromosome changes. Ask your child’s doctor about testing for these changes.

Targeted drugs might also be an option for some of these tumors.*

Ependymomas and anaplastic ependymomas

These tumors usually do not grow into nearby normal brain tissue. They can sometimes be cured by surgery if the entire tumor can be removed, but this isn’t always possible. If some of the tumor is left behind, a second operation may be done in some cases (often after a short course of chemotherapy).

Radiation therapy is recommended after surgery for most patients to try to prevent the tumor from coming back, even if it appears that all of the tumor has been removed.

The use of chemotherapy after surgery is still being tested in clinical trials. Some doctors might recommend it, but its benefit is still uncertain. It may be more helpful for anaplastic ependymomas. Very young children may be given chemotherapy after surgery to help avoid or delay the use of radiation.

Targeted drugs might also be an option for some of these tumors.*

Sometimes ependymoma tumor cells can spread into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). A few weeks after surgery, the doctor may order an MRI scan of the brain and spinal cord and test the CSF for tumor cells by doing a lumbar puncture (spinal tap). If tumor cells are found in the CSF or growing on the surface of the nervous system, radiation is typically given to the entire brain and spinal cord.

Optic gliomas

These tumors start in the optic nerves (the nerves leading from the eyes to the brain). They are often hard to operate on because these nerves are very sensitive and might be harmed by surgery. Depending on where the tumor is, removing it could lead to loss of vision in one or both eyes, so the benefits and risks of surgery have to be considered carefully. In some cases, a child might have already lost some vision because of the tumor itself. Sometimes surgery might not be needed, because these tumors can grow very slowly.

If treatment is needed and the tumor can be removed completely, surgery is often the preferred treatment. But in many cases (especially if the child has neurofibromatosis type 1) the tumor is likely to have spread too far along the optic nerves to be removed completely. Radiation therapy is preferred for these tumors if treatment is needed, although it can also affect a child’s vision (and can have other long-term side effects).

Younger children may get chemotherapy instead of radiation. Radiation could then be used later if needed as the child gets older.

Targeted drugs might also be an option for some of these tumors.*

Brain stem gliomas

Most of these tumors are astrocytomas, although a small number are ependymomas or other tumors. These tumors usually look a certain way on MRI scans, so the diagnosis can often be made without surgery or a biopsy.

Focal brain stem gliomas: A small number of brain stem gliomas are small tumors with very distinct edges (called focal brain stem gliomas). Some of these tumors grow so slowly that treatment might not be needed unless the tumor causes problems. If treatment is needed, these tumors can often be treated successfully with surgery. If surgery can’t be done, radiation therapy may be used to slow its growth. Radiation can also be used if surgery doesn’t remove the tumor completely.

Diffuse brain stem gliomas: Most brain stem gliomas grow diffusely throughout the brain stem, rather than as a distinct (focal) tumor. These tumors often start in the pons, where they are called diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas (DIPGs). The brain stem is vital to life and can’t be removed, so surgery in these cases would most likely do more harm than good, and it is usually not attempted. Diffuse brain stem gliomas typically are treated with radiation therapy. Chemotherapy is sometimes added, although it’s not clear if it’s helpful.

Diffuse brain stem tumors are very hard to control. But in children with neurofibromatosis type 1, these tumors often grow slowly (or even stop growing), so these children tend to have a better outlook. Because these tumors are hard to treat, clinical trials of promising new treatments may be a good option.

Targeted drugs might also be an option for some brain stem gliomas if they are low grade.*

*Targeted drugs for low-grade gliomas

For any type of low-grade (grade I or II) glioma, the tumor cells might be tested for BRAF gene mutations. If the cells have a BRAF gene change, treatment with targeted drugs such as dabrafenib plus trametinib, or tovorafenib, might be an option at some point.

For grade II (2) astrocytomas or oligodendrogliomas, the tumor cells might be tested for IDH1 and IDH2 gene mutations. If the cells have one of these gene changes, a targeted drug such as vorasidenib might be an option after surgery.

Embryonal tumors (including medulloblastomas)

Embryonal tumors tend to grow quickly and spread through the spread to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). In the past, many embryonal tumors were referred to as primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs). Embryonal tumors are all treated in similar ways, but medulloblastomas tend to have a better outlook than other types.

Medulloblastomas: These tumors start in the cerebellum. They tend to grow quickly and are among those most likely to spread outside the brain (usually to the bones or the bone marrow). But they also tend to respond well to treatment.

These tumors can often block the flow of CSF. This can lead to a dangerous rise in the pressure inside the skull, which might need to be treated right away with some type of surgery.

Children with medulloblastoma are often divided into standard-risk and high-risk groups, depending on certain factors. Those in the high-risk group usually get more intensive treatment than children in the standard-risk group. More recently, doctors have started to divide these tumors into 4 groups based on the gene changes within the tumor cells. These might also be used to help determine the best treatment.

Medulloblastomas are removed with surgery when possible, followed by radiation therapy to the area where they started. High doses of radiation are aimed at the area of the tumor. Because these tumors tend to spread to the CSF, children 3 or older also may be given lower doses of radiation to the whole brain and the spinal cord (craniospinal radiation). Chemotherapy is usually given after radiation therapy, which might let doctors use lower doses of radiation in some cases. But if the tumor has spread through the CSF, standard doses of radiation will be needed.

For children younger than 3, doctors try to use as little radiation as possible. Chemotherapy is typically the first treatment given after surgery. Depending on how the tumor responds, chemotherapy might be followed by radiation therapy.

There are some reports that giving high-dose chemotherapy followed by an autologous stem cell transplant may be helpful for some children with medulloblastomas. Several clinical trials are now studying this. For more information on stem cell transplants, see Stem Cell Transplant for Cancer.

Other embryonal tumors and pineoblastomas: Less common types of embryonal tumors include:

  • Medulloepithelioma
  • Atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor (ATRT)
  • Embryonal tumor with multilayered rosettes

Pineoblastomas are no longer considered a type of embryonal tumor, but they are treated in a similar way.

These tumors also tend to grow quickly, and they are generally harder to treat than medulloblastomas (although treatment is often like that used for high-risk medulloblastomas).

Surgery is the main treatment for these tumors, but they usually are hard to remove completely. Still, surgery can relieve symptoms and may help make other treatments more effective. Children 3 or older are given radiation therapy after surgery. Because these tumors tend to spread to the CSF, radiation therapy is often given to the whole brain and the spinal cord (craniospinal radiation).

Chemotherapy may be given with radiation therapy so that a lower dose of radiation can be used. But if the tumor has spread to the CSF, standard doses of radiation will be required. Chemotherapy is also used to treat tumors that come back (recur).

For children younger than 3 years, doctors try to use as little radiation as possible. Chemotherapy is typically the first treatment given after surgery. Some studies have shown very good results using chemotherapy in young children. Depending on how the tumor responds, chemotherapy may or may not be followed by radiation therapy.

There are some reports that giving high-dose chemotherapy followed by an autologous stem cell transplant may be helpful for children with pineoblastomas and other types of embryonal tumors. Several clinical trials are now studying this. For more information on stem cell transplants, see Stem Cell Transplant for Cancer.

Meningiomas

Surgery is the main treatment for these tumors. Children are usually cured if the surgery removes the tumor completely.

Some tumors, particularly those at the base of the brain, can’t be removed completely, and some are invasive and come back even though they were thought to be completely removed. Radiation therapy after surgery may control the growth of these tumors. Chemotherapy may be tried if surgery and radiation aren’t effective, but it is not helpful in many cases.

Schwannomas (including acoustic neuromas)

These slow-growing tumors are usually benign and are cured by surgery. In some centers, small vestibular schwannomas (also known as acoustic neuromas) are treated by stereotactic radiosurgery. For larger schwannomas where complete removal is likely to cause problems, as much as possible is safely removed, and what’s left is treated with radiosurgery.

Spinal cord tumors

These tumors are usually treated similarly to those of the same type in the brain.

Astrocytomas of the spinal cord usually can’t be removed completely. They may be treated with surgery to remove as much tumor as possible, followed by radiation therapy, or with radiation therapy alone. Chemotherapy may be used after surgery instead of radiation in younger children. It may also be used after radiation therapy in older children if the tumor appears to be growing quickly.

Meningiomas near the spinal cord are often cured by surgery. Some ependymomas can be cured by surgery as well. If an ependymoma can’t be removed completely, radiation therapy will be given after surgery.

Choroid plexus tumors

Benign choroid plexus papillomas are usually cured with just surgery. Choroid plexus carcinomas are malignant tumors that are only sometimes cured by surgery. After surgery, these carcinomas are usually treated with radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy.

Craniopharyngiomas

Craniopharyngiomas grow very close to the pituitary gland, the optic nerves, and blood vessels that supply the brain, so they can be hard to remove completely without causing side effects. Some neurosurgeons prefer surgery to remove as much of the tumor as possible, while others prefer to remove most of the tumor (debulking) and then give radiation therapy.

Partial surgical removal followed by very focused radiation therapy may cause fewer severe side effects than complete removal, but it is not yet clear if this approach is as good at preventing the tumor from growing back.

Germ cell tumors

The most common germ cell tumor, germinoma, can usually be cured by radiation therapy alone (after it is diagnosed by surgery or looking at a cerebrospinal fluid sample). Chemotherapy may be added if the tumor is very large or if radiation doesn’t destroy it completely. To try to reduce side effects in children who have not yet reached puberty, some doctors use chemotherapy followed by a reduced dose of radiation as the main treatment. In very young children, chemotherapy may be used instead of radiation therapy. If other types of germ cell tumors are present, either mixed or not mixed with germinoma, the outlook is usually not as good.

Other types of germ cell tumors (such as teratomas and yolk sac tumors) are rarely cured by surgery. Both radiation therapy and chemotherapy are used to treat them, but in some cases this might not control the tumor completely. Sometimes these tumors spread to the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and radiation therapy to the spinal cord and brain is needed as well.

The American Cancer Society medical and editorial content team

Our team is made up of doctors and oncology certified nurses with deep knowledge of cancer care as well as editors and translators with extensive experience in medical writing.

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National Cancer Institute. Childhood Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors Treatment Overview (PDQ®). 2017. Accessed at www.cancer.gov/types/brain/hp/child-brain-treatment-pdq#section/all on April 26, 2018.

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Last Revised: August 8, 2024

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