Cancer Surgery
Surgery has been used to treat cancer for many, many years. Surgery also plays a key role in diagnosing cancer and finding out how far it may have spread.
Cancer surgery is done by specialists called surgical oncologists. Cancer surgery is also done by other types of doctors who specialize in cancer or other types of surgery.
How surgery is used for cancer
Cancer surgery is done to remove part or all of a tumor (growth) from the body. Surgery was the first kind of cancer treatment developed and is used to treat many types of cancer.
Surgery is used for cancer in many ways.
Figuring out if you have cancer can mean that some or all of a tumor will have to be removed from your body. This procedure is called a biopsy.
There are different kinds of biopsies. During a surgical biopsy, your doctor will make a small cut to remove a tissue sample. They may take a small part or all of a tumor. Other types of biopsies use needles instead of surgery, including image-guided fine needle aspiration and core biopsies.
The type of biopsy done depends on where the tumor is and what type of cancer it is thought to be. For example, the method used for prostate biopsies is different from those used for lung biopsies.
After a biopsy, a pathologist looks at the tissue under a microscope. A pathologist is a doctor who looks at cancer cells, tissues, and organs to find disease. The pathologist sends a report to your primary or oncology care team to let them know whether the tumor is cancer and, if so, what type.
Learn more about different types of biopsies in Testing Biopsy and Cytology Specimens for Cancer.
Staging surgery is done to find out how large your tumor is, if it has spread, and if so, where.
Your doctor may remove the entire tumor or take just part of it. They may also take some lymph nodes near the tumor to find out if your cancer has spread there. Lymph nodes are usually small, bean-shaped organs that help fight infection. They are often the first place a cancer spreads.
A pathologist will look at the removed tissue and let your oncologist know what they found. The results of staging surgery and other tests help you and your doctor decide on the best treatment.
Imaging tests may also be done to help stage your cancer. These might include tests such as ultrasounds, CT scans, MRIs, and X-rays.
To learn more about this, see Cancer Staging.
Many people with cancer will have surgery as part of their cancer treatment. Sometimes, surgery is the only cancer treatment you need. Or you might also have other treatments before or after your surgery. This depends on the type of cancer you have, where it started, and if it has spread.
Curative surgery
Curative or primary surgery is usually done when cancer is found in only one part of the body, and all of the cancer probably can be removed. It is called curative because the purpose of the surgery is to remove all of the cancer and some healthy tissue around the cancer (the margin). Removing the healthy tissue increases the chance that all the cancer is removed. In this case, surgery can be the main or sometimes only treatment.
Surgery is often used with other treatments like chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, or targeted therapy .
- Neoadjuvant treatment is given before surgery to help shrink the tumor and make it easier to remove.
- Adjuvant treatment is given after surgery to treat any cancer cells that might remain in your body.
Debulking surgery
Debulking surgery removes part, but not all, of the cancer. Debulking removes as much of the cancer as possible. This surgery is done when all of the cancer cannot be removed.
Debulking surgery may be done if your cancer is too large or if removing all of the cancer would damage other parts of your body.
For example, it may be used for advanced cancer of the ovary and some lymphomas. In these cases, the surgeon takes out as much of the cancer as possible and then treats what’s left with radiation, chemotherapy, or other therapies. This might help decrease the amount of cancer so that other treatments can work better.
This type of surgery is used to relieve side effects caused by cancer and to improve your quality of life. Examples are operations that can:
- Relieve pressure on nerves that are causing you pain
- Remove a block in your intestines or other area
- Prevent or fix broken bones
- Stop bleeding caused by your cancer
Palliative surgery helps ease problems caused by cancer and helps people feel better. This type of surgery is usually done when your cancer is at an advanced stage, so it’s not done to cure the cancer itself.
Supportive surgery
Supportive surgery is done to make it easier for you to get other types of treatment. For example, a vascular access device such as an implanted port may be placed to give you treatments and draw blood instead of putting needles in your hands and arms each time you need IV fluids, blood transfusions, or treatments. An implanted port is a thin, flexible tube put into a large vein and connected to a small drum-like device that’s placed just under your skin. A needle is put into the drum of the port when it needs to be used.
Reconstructive surgery is used to improve the way a person looks after major cancer surgery. It’s also used to restore the function of an organ or body part after surgery. Examples include breast reconstruction after mastectomy or the use of tissue flaps, bone grafts, or prosthetic (metal or plastic) materials after surgery for head and neck cancers.
Reconstructive surgery may be done at the same time the cancer is removed or after you have healed or had other treatments.
Preventive or prophylactic surgery can help lower your risk of getting some types of cancer by removing body tissue that’s likely to become cancer, even if you have no signs of cancer.
Sometimes, an entire organ is removed when a person is at very high risk for having cancer in that area. For example, if you have a strong family history of breast cancer and have an inherited change in a breast cancer gene (called BRCA1 or BRCA2), you might decide to have your breasts removed (prophylactic mastectomy). Removing your breasts before cancer is found can help lower your risk of breast cancer in the future.
Preventive surgery is done to reduce your risk of getting cancer, but it doesn’t guarantee cancer prevention. You will still need to have regular check-ups and screening tests to catch any cancer that does happen early.
Types of cancer surgery
Many types of cancer are treated with surgery. There are many types of surgery, including those that require a large incision and others that use equipment so smaller incisions can be used. For some surgery, you won’t have to have an incision at all.
The type of surgery you need will depend on your type of cancer, where it is in your body, and how big it is. You might need open surgery, which requires larger incisions (cuts). Or your surgeon might be able to remove your cancer using techniques that require smaller incisions, cause less pain, and have shorter recovery times.
Elective surgery is treatment that is planned ahead of time. Most cancer surgery is elective, meaning that you have time to get ready for the surgery.
Emergency surgery needs to happen quickly – often within hours or a couple of days. You might need emergency surgery if you develop a problem that can’t be managed with medicines or other treatments.
Emergency surgery is done when problems are life-threatening. Some reasons for emergency surgery in people with cancer include:
- A bowel blockage (obstruction) so nothing can move through your intestines. This can cause vomiting, dehydration, and severe infection.
- A bowel tear or hole (perforation) that leaks bowel contents into your abdomen (belly), causing infection.
- A bone fracture that needs to be fixed so it doesn’t move (stabilized) so it can heal.
- Bleeding, such as from the rectum, that other treatments can't manage.
- Swelling in the brain or spinal cord that must be relieved quickly.
Open surgery lets your surgeon look directly at the area of the body they think is affected by cancer. It also lets the surgeon see what other organs or lymph nodes are near the cancer. Open surgery can help your surgeon remove as much of your cancer as possible while decreasing the damage done to other organs.
Open surgery also allows your surgeon to get to parts of the body that less invasive procedures cannot.
Recovery from open surgery might take longer than less invasive types of surgery, and you might need help while you heal. Ask your surgeon or cancer care team what you can expect while you recover. Be sure to ask what kind of support you will need at home so you and your loved ones can make a caregiving plan. Having a plan can help reduce your stress while you recover.
Your surgeon may think a less invasive surgical technique would be a good option for you. Minimally invasive surgery uses smaller incisions compared to open surgery. This approach also uses a camera, small instruments, and other equipment.
Minimally invasive surgery usually means that you will have a faster recovery time with less pain. You might still need someone to help care for you at home while you recover.
Laparoscopic surgery
During laparoscopic surgery, your surgeon makes several small cuts in the skin of your abdomen (belly). A thin, lighted tube with a camera is inserted through one of the cuts. Then, instruments are put through the other cuts to operate.
Laparoscopic surgery is sometimes used for biopsy procedures (taking pieces of tissue to check for cancer). It is also sometimes used to remove smaller cancers.
Using a laparoscope to remove some tumors can help reduce blood loss during surgery and pain afterward. It can also shorten your hospital stay and help you heal faster.
Laparoscopic surgery is now being used to remove some cancers, such as colon, rectum, cervix, uterus, ovaries, liver, prostate, and kidney. Studies are being done on uses in other types of cancer.
Thoracoscopic surgery
This type of surgery uses a thoracoscope to look inside your chest. It is a thin, lighted tube with a camera on the end that can be put through a small cut in your chest. The thoracoscope allows the surgeon to take biopsies of areas that might be cancer and drain fluid. This type of surgery can also be used to remove cancerous parts of your lungs. You may also hear this type of surgery called video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS).
Thoracoscopic surgery requires less cutting than open surgery. You can usually recover more quickly with fewer problems than with open surgery.
Robotic surgery
A robotic system is sometimes used to help the surgeon during laparoscopic (or thoracoscopic) surgery. The surgeon sits at a control panel in the operating room with a monitor that shows the inside of your body. The surgeon then moves the robotic arms to operate through several small cuts in your body.
Robotic surgery is sometimes used to treat many of the same cancers that are treated with laparoscopic or thoracoscopic surgery.
Mohs surgery
Mohs micrographic surgery is used to remove certain skin cancers. One very thin layer is removed at a time. After each layer is removed, the tissue is checked for cancer cells with a microscope. This procedure is repeated until all the cells in a layer look normal.
Mohs surgery is used when it is not known how deep your skin cancer is or when as much healthy tissue as possible needs to be saved, such as when treating skin cancers on the face.
Laser surgery
A laser is a highly focused beam of light energy which can be used for very precise surgical work. It can be used instead of a scalpel (blade) to cut through tissue. It is most often used to treat cancers or precancers on the skin or the lining of internal organs that can be reached through normal body openings.
Laser surgery can help get rid of precancerous growths such as polyps in the colon or abnormal areas on the cervix. It may also be used to treat some cancers of the cervix, penis, vulva, esophagus, lung, and skin.
Lasers are also sometimes used to help relieve symptoms of cancer, such as when large tumors block the windpipe (trachea) or esophagus, causing problems breathing or eating.
Laser surgery can be faster than open surgery and less likely to damage surrounding tissues. You would usually heal faster and be less likely to have bleeding or swelling.
Learn more about the use of lasers in Laser Therapy.
Cryosurgery
Cryosurgery (cryotherapy) uses liquid nitrogen or a very cold probe to freeze and kill abnormal cells. This technique is sometimes used to treat precancerous conditions on a body surface, like those on the skin, cervix, and penis.
Cryosurgery can also be used to treat some deeper cancers, like those in the liver and prostate. A scan (like an ultrasound or CT scan) might be used to guide the cryoprobe to where the cancer cells are. This limits damage to nearby healthy tissue.
Radiofrequency ablation
Radiofrequency ablation, or RFA, is a type of hyperthermia - a treatment that uses heat to destroy cancer cells. In RFA, high-energy radio waves are sent through a needle to heat and destroy cancer cells. RFA may be used to treat cancer tumors in the liver, lungs, kidney, and other organs.
Stereotactic radiation therapy
Also called stereotactic radiosurgery, stereotactic radiation therapy is not surgery but a way to give radiation therapy. It’s sometimes called surgery because it’s so precise, even though no cut is actually made.
You can learn more about this kind of treatment in Radiation Therapy
What is it like to have surgery?
Learn about surgery for your cancer type
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- References
Developed by the American Cancer Society medical and editorial content team with medical review and contribution by the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO).
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Last Revised: June 2, 2025
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